US Citizenship vs Naturalization: Key Differences Explained

The terms “citizenship” and “naturalization” are often used interchangeably, but they represent fundamentally different concepts in US immigration law. Understanding this distinction is essential for anyone navigating the path to becoming an American, whether you’re a green card holder considering your options or simply trying to understand how US nationality works.

This guide breaks down exactly what separates citizenship from naturalization, compares the different ways people become citizens, and explains what rights and responsibilities come with each pathway.

What’s the Difference? The Basic Distinction

At its core, the difference is simple: US citizenship is a legal status, while naturalization is a process to obtain that status.

Think of it this way—citizenship is the destination, and naturalization is one of several roads that can take you there. A person born in Texas and a person who immigrated from India and completed the naturalization process both hold the same citizenship status. They arrived there differently, but they’re both US citizens.

US Citizenship refers to the legal bond between an individual and the United States. This status grants specific rights (like voting and holding a US passport) and imposes certain obligations (like jury duty and paying taxes on worldwide income). Citizenship can be acquired in several ways, and once obtained, it represents a permanent connection to the nation.

Naturalization is the legal procedure through which a foreign-born individual who was not a citizen at birth becomes a US citizen. It involves meeting specific eligibility requirements, submitting an application, passing tests, attending an interview, and taking the Oath of Allegiance. Naturalization is just one pathway to citizenship—not citizenship itself.

The Five Pathways to US Citizenship

Not everyone becomes a citizen the same way. US law recognizes several distinct pathways, each with its own requirements and implications.

1. Citizenship by Birth on US Soil (Jus Soli)

The most straightforward path to citizenship comes from the 14th Amendment’s Citizenship Clause, which states that “all persons born… in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens.” This principle, known as jus soli (Latin for “right of the soil”), means that anyone born within US territory automatically becomes a citizen at birth.

This includes births in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, the US Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands. The citizenship is automatic and unconditional—no application, no test, no waiting period. The parents’ immigration status is irrelevant; a child born to tourists, students, undocumented immigrants, or permanent residents on US soil is equally a citizen.

There are narrow exceptions: children born to foreign diplomats with full diplomatic immunity and children of enemy forces occupying US territory do not acquire birthright citizenship. However, these situations are extremely rare.

Important clarification: Contrary to popular belief, US military bases abroad are not considered US soil for citizenship purposes. Neither are US embassies, consulates, or ships in international waters. Children born in these locations do not automatically become citizens—they may acquire citizenship through their parents, but not through birthplace.

2. Citizenship by Blood (Jus Sanguinis)

Children born outside the United States to US citizen parents may acquire citizenship at birth through the principle of jus sanguinis (“right of blood”). However, this isn’t automatic in all cases—specific requirements must be met depending on the parents’ citizenship status and marital situation.

When both parents are US citizens: At least one parent must have resided in the United States or its territories at some point before the child’s birth. There’s no minimum duration required—even a brief period of residence qualifies.

When one parent is a US citizen and one is not: The citizen parent must have been physically present in the United States for at least five years total, with at least two of those years occurring after age 14. This requirement ensures the citizen parent has meaningful ties to the country before transmitting citizenship to a child born abroad.

For children born out of wedlock: Additional requirements apply depending on whether the mother or father is the US citizen. If the father is the citizen, he must establish paternity, agree in writing to provide financial support until the child turns 18, and legitimize the child under the law of their residence before the child turns 18.

Children who acquire citizenship this way are citizens from birth—they are not naturalized citizens. They never go through the naturalization process, even though they were born outside the United States.

3. Derived Citizenship

Under the Child Citizenship Act of 2000, certain children automatically become US citizens when specific conditions are met before their 18th birthday. This applies when:

• At least one parent is a US citizen (by birth or naturalization)
• The child is under 18 years old
• The child is a lawful permanent resident (green card holder)
• The child resides in the United States in the legal and physical custody of the citizen parent

When all these conditions align, citizenship is automatic—it happens by operation of law without any application. The child doesn’t need to file paperwork to become a citizen, though they will need Form N-600 to obtain a Certificate of Citizenship as proof of their status.

This pathway is particularly relevant for families where a parent naturalizes while their child is still a minor. The moment the parent takes the Oath of Allegiance and becomes a citizen, the child simultaneously becomes a citizen too, assuming all other requirements are met.

4. Citizenship Through Naturalization (Standard Path)

Naturalization is the process by which foreign-born adults who were not citizens at birth become US citizens. Unlike the pathways above, naturalization requires actively applying, meeting extensive eligibility criteria, and completing a formal process that culminates in the Oath of Allegiance ceremony.

The standard requirements include:

• Being at least 18 years old
• Holding lawful permanent resident status (green card) for at least 5 years
• Continuous residence in the United States for those 5 years
• Physical presence in the US for at least 30 months (913 days) of the 5-year period
• Residence in the state where applying for at least 3 months
• Demonstrating good moral character
• Passing English language and US civics tests
• Demonstrating attachment to the principles of the US Constitution

The process involves filing Form N-400, attending a biometrics appointment, undergoing a background check, completing an interview with a USCIS officer, and finally attending an oath ceremony where the applicant swears allegiance to the United States.

5. Citizenship Through Naturalization (Special Paths)

Several categories of applicants qualify for modified naturalization requirements:

Spouses of US citizens may naturalize after only 3 years as a permanent resident (instead of 5), provided they have been married to and living with their citizen spouse for the entire 3 years and the spouse has been a citizen for at least 3 years.

Military service members enjoy significant benefits. Those who serve honorably during peacetime need only 1 year of military service plus permanent resident status. Those who serve during designated periods of hostility (including September 11, 2001 to present) face even fewer requirements: no minimum service length, no permanent resident status requirement, no continuous residence requirement, and no physical presence requirement. They can even naturalize while stationed overseas.

Employees of certain organizations working abroad for the US government, US research institutions, or recognized American companies may qualify for expedited naturalization with reduced residence requirements.

How Naturalization Works: The Process Step by Step

For those pursuing citizenship through naturalization, understanding the process is crucial. Here’s what to expect:

Step 1: Determine Eligibility Before applying, confirm you meet all requirements. Use USCIS’s online eligibility tool or consult an immigration attorney if your situation is complex.

Step 2: File Form N-400 Submit your Application for Naturalization either online or by mail. As of 2025, the filing fee is $710 for online applications or $760 for paper applications. Reduced fees ($380) are available for those with household incomes between 150-400% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines, and fee waivers exist for those below 150%.

Step 3: Biometrics Appointment USCIS will schedule you for fingerprinting and photographing at an Application Support Center. This information is used for background checks.

Step 4: Interview Attend your naturalization interview at a USCIS field office. During this interview, an officer will review your application, verify your identity, test your English abilities (speaking is evaluated throughout; reading and writing through simple sentence tests), and administer the civics test.

Step 5: Civics Test The 2025 naturalization civics test draws from a pool of 128 possible questions covering American government and history. During your interview, you’ll be asked up to 20 questions and must answer at least 12 correctly to pass. The test ends early if you get 12 right or 9 wrong.

Step 6: Receive Decision After your interview, you’ll receive one of four outcomes: granted (approved), continued (more information needed), denied, or referred for a hearing.

Step 7: Take the Oath of Allegiance If approved, you’ll attend a naturalization ceremony where you’ll take the Oath of Allegiance. This is the moment you officially become a US citizen. You cannot vote, obtain a US passport, or exercise other citizenship rights until you complete this oath—approval alone is not sufficient.

Current Processing Times: As of early 2026, naturalization applications typically take 5.5 to 8 months from filing to oath ceremony, though this varies by field office.

Citizenship vs Naturalization: Rights Comparison

One of the most common questions is whether naturalized citizens have the same rights as those born citizens. The short answer is: almost entirely yes.

The Supreme Court addressed this directly in Luria v. United States, declaring that a naturalized citizen “stands on an equal footing with the native citizen in all respects save that of eligibility to the Presidency.”

Rights That Are Completely Identical

Both birthright citizens and naturalized citizens enjoy the same:

Political rights: The right to vote in all federal, state, and local elections; the right to run for most elected offices including Congress, governorships, and local positions; the right to petition the government.

Travel rights: Eligibility for a US passport; freedom to travel abroad and return without restriction; access to US consular assistance worldwide.

Residence rights: Unconditional right to live anywhere in the United States permanently; immunity from deportation.

Family rights: Ability to sponsor spouses, children, parents, and siblings for immigration to the United States.

Employment rights: Eligibility for all jobs including federal government positions requiring citizenship; eligibility for security clearances.

Civic participation: Obligation and privilege to serve on juries; access to federal benefits and programs.

The One Constitutional Difference

The sole distinction written into the Constitution concerns the presidency. Article II, Section 1 states: “No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President.”

The 12th Amendment extends this requirement to the Vice President. This means naturalized citizens, regardless of how long they’ve been citizens or what they’ve accomplished, cannot serve as President or Vice President.

However, naturalized citizens can and do serve in virtually every other capacity. They serve in Congress (both House and Senate), as Cabinet secretaries, as governors, as Supreme Court justices, and as military generals. The presidential restriction is narrow and specific.

The Denaturalization Difference

While birthright citizenship is essentially irrevocable, naturalized citizenship can theoretically be revoked through a legal process called denaturalization. However, this is extraordinarily rare and constitutionally constrained.

Denaturalization requires:

• Federal court action (no agency can revoke citizenship unilaterally)
• “Clear, convincing, and unequivocal evidence” of grounds for revocation
• Proof that the person either illegally procured citizenship or concealed material facts during the naturalization process

Crucially, conduct after naturalization cannot serve as grounds for denaturalization. The Supreme Court’s 2017 decision in Maslenjak v. United States further limited government power, ruling that only material misrepresentations that actually influenced the naturalization decision can justify revocation—”small omissions and minor lies” cannot.

Historically, only about 11 denaturalization cases were pursued annually between 1990 and 2017. While enforcement priorities have shifted under different administrations, the constitutional protections remain robust.

Green Card vs Citizenship: A Critical Distinction

Many people confuse permanent residence (green card status) with citizenship. While green card holders have significant rights, the differences are substantial:

Voting: Citizens can vote; green card holders cannot vote in any federal election and most state/local elections.

Deportation: Citizens cannot be deported under any circumstances; green card holders can be deported for certain criminal convictions, fraud, or prolonged absence from the US.

Travel: Citizens can stay abroad indefinitely; green card holders risk losing status if they remain outside the US for more than 6 months (or definitely if more than 1 year) without advance permission.

Passport: Citizens hold US passports; green card holders travel on their foreign country’s passport with their green card as proof of US residence.

Family sponsorship: Citizens can sponsor more relatives (including parents and siblings) with shorter wait times; green card holders have more limited sponsorship options.

Renewal: Citizenship is permanent; green cards must be renewed every 10 years.

Federal jobs: Many federal positions require citizenship; green card holders are ineligible for these roles.

The path from green card to citizenship is naturalization—the very process this article has been describing.

What Changed in 2025: Recent Policy Updates

The naturalization landscape shifted significantly in 2025, with several policy changes that applicants should understand:

New Civics Test (October 2025): The redesigned test is substantially more difficult than its predecessor. The question pool expanded from 100 to 128 questions, applicants are asked 20 questions instead of 10, and the passing threshold increased from 6 correct to 12 correct. The test also stops if an applicant answers 9 questions incorrectly.

Enhanced Good Moral Character Standards (August 2025): USCIS now evaluates applicants for “affirmative positive contributions” to society, not merely the absence of negative factors. Officers may consider community involvement, family caregiving, educational attainment, stable employment history, and tax compliance. Even “technically lawful” behavior like frequent traffic violations or patterns of harassment may be scrutinized.

Expanded Vetting Procedures: Background checks now include enhanced social media reviews. USCIS has also revived “neighborhood investigations” in some cases, where officers may request testimonial letters from neighbors, employers, and associates.

Payment Method Changes (October 2025): USCIS no longer accepts checks, money orders, or cashier’s checks for any applications. All payments must be made by credit card, debit card, or ACH bank transfer.

Processing Holds: As of late 2025, USCIS placed indefinite holds on naturalization ceremonies for applicants from certain designated countries, creating additional delays for affected individuals.

Naturalization Statistics: By the Numbers

Understanding the scale of naturalization helps contextualize its importance:

• 818,500 people naturalized in fiscal year 2024
• Approximately 9 million permanent residents are currently eligible to naturalize
• The approval rate exceeds 89%
• Average processing time: 5.5 to 8 months
• Top countries of origin: Mexico (13.1%), India (6.1%), Philippines (5.0%), Dominican Republic (4.9%), Vietnam (4.1%)
• Top states: California, Florida, New York, and Texas account for over half of all naturalizations

Since 1907, more than 52 million people have become US citizens through naturalization, representing every nation on Earth.

Dual Citizenship: What Happens to Your Original Nationality

A common concern for those considering naturalization is whether they must give up their original citizenship. Despite language in the Oath of Allegiance about renouncing “all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty,” the United States does not actually require applicants to surrender other citizenships.

The State Department explicitly states: “U.S. law does not require a U.S. citizen to choose between U.S. citizenship and another nationality.” The oath is considered a statement of primary allegiance to the US, not a legal mechanism for renouncing other nationalities.

Whether you actually lose your original citizenship depends entirely on that country’s laws, not US law. Many countries (including the UK, Canada, Mexico, and India) allow their citizens to naturalize elsewhere while retaining original citizenship. Others (like China, Japan, and some others) do not permit dual citizenship and may revoke nationality upon naturalization in the US.

If maintaining your original citizenship matters to you, research your home country’s laws before naturalizing.

Common Questions Answered

Can a naturalized citizen be deported? No, citizens cannot be deported. However, naturalized citizenship can potentially be revoked through court proceedings if it was obtained through fraud, allowing for subsequent deportation. This is rare and requires judicial process.

Do naturalized citizens have to renew their citizenship? No. Once naturalized, citizenship is permanent and does not expire or require renewal. You will need to renew your passport (every 10 years for adults), but citizenship itself is lifelong.

Can naturalized citizens sponsor family members? Yes, naturalized citizens have the exact same family sponsorship rights as birthright citizens. They can sponsor spouses, unmarried children, married children, parents, and siblings.

How long after getting a green card can you apply for citizenship? Generally 5 years, or 3 years if you’re married to a US citizen. You can actually file your N-400 application up to 90 days before reaching the 5-year (or 3-year) mark.

What happens if you fail the naturalization test? You’ll be scheduled for a second interview within 60-90 days to retake the portion you failed (English, civics, or both). If you fail twice, your application is denied, but you can reapply and start the process again.

The Bottom Line

The distinction between citizenship and naturalization is fundamental: citizenship is the status, naturalization is the process. Multiple pathways lead to citizenship—birth on US soil, birth to US parents abroad, derivation through parents, and naturalization for eligible immigrants.

Once someone becomes a citizen, whether by birth or naturalization, they hold essentially identical rights. Naturalized citizens vote, hold passports, sponsor family members, serve on juries, work in government, and enjoy all the privileges of American citizenship. The only constitutional distinction is presidential eligibility—a narrow restriction that affects virtually no one’s daily experience of citizenship.

For the millions of permanent residents considering naturalization, the process has become more rigorous in 2025, with harder tests and stricter vetting. But the fundamental promise remains: complete the process, take the oath, and you stand on equal footing with every American citizen, regardless of where you were born.